Some Americans might say that freedom of expression began with the ratification of the First Amendment to the Constitution in 1971. A Frenchman might refer to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789. In fact, the roots of free speech are deep, deep, and pervasive. Fabriklis, the Athenian statesman, has been praising the democratic merits of open debate and tolerance of social dissent since 431 BCE.Freedom of expression remains (سلمان-رشدي-حرية-ال (The freedom of speech) is one of the most controversial freedoms, because speech does not always remain within the bounds of ideas, and canIt can turn into an action that affects others, changes their attitudes, harms their reputation or dignity, and may sometimes contribute to incitement to violence. الأنماط-الثق %D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%81-%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%81-%D8%A3%D8%B6%D8%AD%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1-%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%9F) and discrimination, therefore this freedom raises an important philosophical and legal question: How can [human rights] be protected? (%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AB%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8 %B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A5%D9%84%D8%B2%D8%A7-%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B5%D8%AF-%D9%85%D9%82%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%81-%D8%AA% D8% A7%D8%B1%D9%8A% D8% AE% D9% 8A% D8% A7%D9%8B-% D9% 88% D9% 81% D9% 84% D8% B3% D9% 81%D9% 8A %D8% A7% D9%8B)to say, without this right becoming an excuse to harm others, or to turn their protection into a means of silencing dissenting voices?About this dilemma, the Danish researcher and jurist Jacob Mchangama answers in his book "Freedom of Expression, A History from Socrates to Social Media Networks", issued recently in its French version by Flammarion House (2026). In a reading that extends for about 2,500 years, the author traces the historical, philosophical and legal path of this freedom, from its ancient Athenian roots, through its development in European political thought, to the challenges posed by digital media and social media networks, and presents at the same timeA history of the victory of freedom and its setbacks and renewed conflicts to expand its scope or seek to control it, warning that the seemingly established freedom may lose its ground when the willingness to defend it retreats, when the targeted voices are far from our convictions or from our political and intellectual affiliations.As Mshangama explains, the historical roots of freedom of expression go back to Athenian democracy, when the importance of public debate and the right of citizens to participate in political life and to hold those in power accountable emerged. The concept of "isegoria" expressed the right of citizens to speak in the public sphere, while the concept of "parrhesia" was associated with frankness of speech and boldness of expression of opinion, even when it involves risk or confrontation with influential people.
- LimitedParticipation *However, this experience, despite its historical importance, was not a complete model of equality, as political participation remained confined to specific groups, and did not include women, slaves and others who were outside the citizenry. Thus, the recognition of the importance of free discussion combined with the exclusion of segments of society in a paradox that reveals that the history of freedom has never been separate from the boundaries of the group that recognizes it or the interests that shape its scope.As the book traces the experiences of defenders of this freedom, starting from Demosthenes to subsequent political experiences, it does not see in the history of freedom of expression an irreversible upward path. Ages of openness and stages of repression have followed, and the arguments used by the authorities to justify censorship have changed, from protecting public order to preserving faith and morals. As a striking political scene has repeated, groups demand freedom of expression as long as they are out of power, and then seek to restrict it when they become in a position of influence. Here the book derives one of its threadsThe regulator, whom the author calls "The Curse of Milton", evokes the English poet John Milton, the author of the famous text in defense of freedom and against censorship, who, under the Cromwell regime, ended up practicing censorship itself. The paradox reveals how interests empty principles of their meaning, so the defender of freedom turns into a restrictor to them when he gives his ideas protection that he withholds from his opponents.But freedom of expression did not crystallize, in its beginnings, as a clear legal right, it gradually arose from philosophical debates about tolerance, freedom of conscience, and the independence of the individual in the face of power, and Baruch Spinoza and John Locke contributed to building arguments against censorship, and in defense of the human right to think, believe, and research.
